Study Notes

World War I

World War I
World War I Depth Study Notes

World War I: A Comprehensive Study

1914-1918: The War That Changed the World

Causes of World War I

The MAIN Causes

Militarism: The arms race between major European powers intensified in the early 20th century. Naval rivalry between Britain and Germany was particularly acute following Germany's implementation of the Tirpitz Plan to expand their navy.

Alliances: Europe became divided into two hostile alliance systems:

  • Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
  • Triple Entente: Britain, France, and Russia

Imperialism: Competition for colonies and markets led to increased tensions, particularly in Africa during the "Scramble for Africa" and in Asia.

Nationalism: Growing nationalist movements threatened multi-ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire. Serbian nationalism was particularly significant in triggering the war.

The Balkans Crisis

The Balkans had been destabilized by the decline of the Ottoman Empire, creating a power vacuum that Austria-Hungary and Russia competed to fill. The region experienced several crises:

  • Bosnian Crisis (1908-09): Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, angering Serbia and Russia
  • Balkan Wars (1912-13): Further destabilized the region and increased Serbian power and ambition

The Spark: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb and member of the Black Hand, a Serbian nationalist organization.

The assassination set off a chain of events:

  1. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia with deliberately harsh terms
  2. Serbia accepted most but not all terms
  3. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia (July 28, 1914)
  4. Russia began mobilizing in support of Serbia
  5. Germany declared war on Russia (August 1) and France (August 3)
  6. Germany invaded neutral Belgium to attack France
  7. Britain declared war on Germany (August 4)

"The lamps are going out all over Europe, we shall not see them lit again in our life-time."

— Sir Edward Grey, British Foreign Secretary, August 3, 1914

World War I Timeline

1914

June 28: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia

August 1-4: Germany declares war on Russia, France, and invades Belgium; Britain enters the war

August-September: Battle of Tannenberg; First Battle of the Marne halts German advance

November: Ottoman Empire enters the war on the side of Central Powers

December: First Christmas truce on the Western Front

1915

February: Germany begins unrestricted submarine warfare

April: Second Battle of Ypres; first large-scale use of poison gas

April-January 1916: Gallipoli Campaign fails for Allies

May: Italy enters war on Allied side

May 7: Sinking of the Lusitania

September: Bulgaria joins Central Powers

1916

February-December: Battle of Verdun causes enormous casualties

May 31-June 1: Battle of Jutland, the war's largest naval battle

July-November: Battle of the Somme; British suffer 60,000 casualties on first day

August: Romania enters war on Allied side

November: Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, dies

1917

February: Germany resumes unrestricted submarine warfare

March: First Russian Revolution; Tsar Nicholas II abdicates

April 6: United States declares war on Germany

April-May: Nivelle Offensive fails; French Army mutinies

July-November: Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)

November: Bolshevik Revolution in Russia; Communists take power

December: Armistice between Russia and Central Powers

1918

January: U.S. President Wilson issues Fourteen Points

March: Russia signs Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, exits war

March-July: German Spring Offensive makes initial gains but ultimately fails

August 8: "Black Day of the German Army" begins Allied Hundred Days Offensive

September-October: Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary sign armistices

November 9: Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates

November 11: Germany signs armistice; fighting ends at 11 a.m.

1919

January-June: Paris Peace Conference

June 28: Treaty of Versailles signed

September: U.S. President Wilson suffers stroke during campaign for League of Nations

November: U.S. Senate rejects Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations

The Western Front

From Mobile to Static Warfare

The Western Front was established in August-September 1914 when the initial German advance through Belgium and into France was halted at the First Battle of the Marne. After the "Race to the Sea," a continuous line of trenches was established from the Swiss border to the North Sea.

The front became characterized by static trench warfare, with neither side able to achieve a decisive breakthrough for most of the war despite enormous casualties.

Trench Warfare

The trench system typically consisted of:

  • Front line trenches: Where soldiers would prepare for attacks
  • Support trenches: 75-100 meters behind the front line
  • Reserve trenches: Several hundred meters further back
  • Communication trenches: Connected the different trench lines
  • No Man's Land: The deadly open area between opposing front line trenches

Life in the trenches was characterized by boredom interspersed with terror, poor sanitation, exposure to the elements, disease, and the constant threat of artillery bombardment or sniper fire.

Map of the Somme battlefield

Battle of the Somme (1916)

The Battle of the Somme was one of the largest and bloodiest battles of World War I. It was fought between July 1 and November 18, 1916, on both sides of the River Somme in France.

The British and French forces attempted to break through German defenses and draw German forces away from Verdun. The first day of the battle remains the bloodiest in British military history, with approximately 60,000 British casualties, including 19,240 dead.

British & Commonwealth

~420,000

French

~200,000

German

~500,000

Battle of Verdun (1916)

The longest battle of World War I, lasting from February 21 to December 18, 1916. German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn planned to "bleed France white" by attacking the symbolic fortress city of Verdun.

The battle became a war of attrition with both sides suffering enormous casualties. The French defense, organized by General Philippe Pétain and later Robert Nivelle, ultimately held.

French

~377,000

German

~337,000

Map of the Somme battlefield

The Final Offensives

German Spring Offensive (1918): Germany's last major attempt to win the war before American forces arrived in strength. Initial successes were followed by stalemate as German forces outran their supplies and faced fresh Allied troops.

Allied Hundred Days Offensive (Aug-Nov 1918): A series of successful Allied attacks that ultimately led to the defeat of German forces on the Western Front. Beginning with the Battle of Amiens on August 8, 1918 (called the "Black Day of the German Army" by General Ludendorff), the Allies advanced steadily, forcing Germany to seek an armistice.

The Eastern Front

Characteristics of the Eastern Front

Unlike the Western Front, the Eastern Front was characterized by greater mobility and maneuver due to:

  • Vast geographic expanse covering thousands of kilometers
  • Lower force-to-space ratio, making continuous trench lines impractical
  • Less developed infrastructure and harsher weather conditions

The Eastern Front primarily involved Russia against Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the Ottoman Empire fighting Russia in the Caucasus region.

Map of the Somme battlefield

Battle of Tannenberg (1914)

Fought between August 26-30, 1914, this battle was a major German victory over Russia. The Russian Second Army under General Alexander Samsonov invaded East Prussia but was encircled and almost completely destroyed by German forces led by Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff.

This battle established Hindenburg and Ludendorff as German national heroes and severely damaged Russian morale and military capabilities early in the war.

Russian

~170,000

German

~12,000

Brusilov Offensive (1916)

The Brusilov Offensive (June-September 1916) was Russia's greatest success of the war. Led by General Alexei Brusilov, Russian forces broke through Austro-Hungarian lines in Galicia and Bukovina. The offensive relieved pressure on other Allied fronts and severely weakened Austria-Hungary, but the Russians suffered heavy casualties and were unable to sustain their advance.

Russian Revolution and Exit from War

The strain of the war contributed significantly to the Russian Revolutions of 1917:

  1. February Revolution: Forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate; Provisional Government continued the war
  2. Bolshevik Revolution (October/November): Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power and sought peace

In December 1917, Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 formally ended Russia's participation in the war, with harsh terms that included surrendering Poland, the Baltic states, Finland, and Ukraine.

The exit of Russia allowed Germany to transfer hundreds of thousands of troops to the Western Front for their 1918 Spring Offensive.

Key Figures of World War I

Map of the Somme battlefield

Woodrow Wilson

Country: United States

Role: U.S. President (1913-1921)

Led America into the war in 1917. Proposed the "Fourteen Points" as a basis for peace negotiations and championed the League of Nations. His vision for a peaceful postwar order was ultimately undermined by Allied demands and U.S. Senate rejection.

Map of the Somme battlefield

Kaiser Wilhelm II

Country: Germany

Role: Emperor of Germany

Grandson of Queen Victoria whose aggressive foreign policy contributed to tensions before the war. Increasingly sidelined by military leaders during the conflict. Abdicated on November 9, 1918, and fled to the Netherlands.

Map of the Somme battlefield

Ferdinand Foch

Country: France

Role: Supreme Allied Commander

Appointed Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in 1918. Coordinated the final Allied offensive that led to German defeat. Famously said of the Treaty of Versailles: "This is not peace. It is an armistice for twenty years."

Tsar Nicholas II

Tsar Nicholas II

Country: Russia

Role: Emperor of Russia

Last Russian Tsar whose decision to take personal command of the Russian Army in 1915 tied him directly to military failures. Forced to abdicate in March 1917 and later executed with his family by the Bolsheviks in July 1918.

David Lloyd George

David Lloyd George

Country: Great Britain

Role: Prime Minister (1916-1922)

Became British Prime Minister during the war's darkest period. Energized the British war effort and played a key role in the Paris Peace Conference, taking a middle position between Wilson's idealism and Clemenceau's desire for harsh treatment of Germany.

Georges Clemenceau

Georges Clemenceau

Country: France

Role: Prime Minister (1917-1920)

Known as "The Tiger" for his determination. Became French Prime Minister in 1917 and led France through the final year of the war. At the Paris Peace Conference, he insisted on harsh terms for Germany to ensure French security.

Technology and Warfare

The First Modern War

World War I saw the first large-scale use of many new technologies, creating unprecedented destructive power and transforming how war was waged.

Machine Guns

Machine guns like the British Vickers and German Maschinengewehr 08 could fire 400-600 rounds per minute. They were devastating defensive weapons that made frontal infantry assaults extremely costly and contributed significantly to the stalemate on the Western Front.

Artillery

Artillery caused the majority of casualties in the war. Heavy guns could fire shells weighing hundreds of pounds over distances of several miles. Creeping barrages developed as a tactic to provide covering fire for advancing infantry.

By 1918, artillery techniques had become highly sophisticated, with fire control based on accurate maps, meteorological data, and flash-spotting.

Chemical Weapons

First used at the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915 when Germany released chlorine gas. Later developments included phosgene and mustard gas. By the war's end, all major powers were using chemical weapons. Gas masks and protective clothing were developed in response.

While chemical weapons caused relatively few deaths compared to conventional weapons, they created terror and remained a powerful psychological weapon.

Aircraft

Evolved rapidly from reconnaissance platforms to fighters and bombers. Famous fighter aircraft included the German Fokker Dr.I (flown by the "Red Baron"), the British Sopwith Camel, and the French SPAD XIII.

Strategic bombing of cities began, prefiguring the aerial warfare of World War II.

Tanks

First deployed by the British at the Battle of the Somme in 1916. Early tanks were slow, unreliable, and vulnerable, but by 1918 they had become more effective. The British Mark IV and V and the French Renault FT were among the most successful designs.

Tanks helped break the trench warfare stalemate during the final Allied offensives.

Submarines

Germany's U-boats nearly succeeded in cutting Britain's maritime supply lines. Unrestricted submarine warfare, which targeted merchant and passenger ships without warning, contributed to bringing the United States into the war after the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915.

Medical Innovations

The massive casualties of the war drove medical advances:

  • Blood transfusion techniques were improved and blood banks established
  • X-ray machines became portable and were used near the front lines
  • Plastic surgery techniques developed to treat facial injuries
  • Triage systems were refined for treating mass casualties
  • Prosthetic limbs improved to help the many amputees

Communications

The complexity of modern warfare required improved communications:

  • Field telephones connected front lines with headquarters when wires weren't cut by shellfire
  • Wireless radio became increasingly important, especially for naval and air operations
  • Carrier pigeons remained surprisingly effective when electrical communications failed
  • Signal lamps, flags, and flares were used for immediate tactical communications

The Treaty of Versailles

The Paris Peace Conference

The Paris Peace Conference opened on January 18, 1919, with delegates from 27 nations. However, the key decisions were made by the "Big Four":

  • Woodrow Wilson (United States) - Advocated for his Fourteen Points and the League of Nations
  • David Lloyd George (Great Britain) - Sought a moderate settlement while satisfying British public demands for German punishment
  • Georges Clemenceau (France) - Demanded harsh terms to ensure French security against future German aggression
  • Vittorio Orlando (Italy) - Focused on securing territorial gains promised to Italy

Germany and other defeated powers were excluded from the negotiations.

Key Terms of the Treaty

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Its major provisions included:

1. War Guilt Clause (Article 231): Germany accepted responsibility for causing the war

2. Reparations: Germany was forced to pay 132 billion gold marks (later reduced) to the Allies

3. Territorial Changes:

  • Alsace-Lorraine returned to France
  • Parts of Prussia given to the newly reconstituted Poland
  • German colonies became League of Nations mandates
  • Saar coalfields placed under League of Nations control for 15 years
  • Rhineland demilitarized

4. Military Restrictions:

  • German army limited to 100,000 men
  • Conscription prohibited
  • No tanks, military aircraft, or submarines allowed
  • Navy reduced to six battleships and smaller vessels
  • General Staff abolished

5. League of Nations: Established as Wilson's "Fourteen Points" envisioned, but the U.S. never joined due to Senate rejection

Reaction and Legacy

The treaty was widely criticized:

  • In Germany: Seen as a "diktat" (dictated peace) and a national humiliation. Economic terms were viewed as crushing and punitive
  • In Allied Countries: Many felt it was either too harsh (like economist John Maynard Keynes who predicted economic disaster) or too lenient (like Marshal Foch who predicted another war in 20 years)
  • In the United States: Senate rejected the treaty, largely due to opposition to the League of Nations

The harsh terms, economic burden, and "war guilt" clause fueled German resentment and nationalism, creating conditions that Adolf Hitler would later exploit in his rise to power.

"This is not a peace. It is an armistice for twenty years."

— Marshal Ferdinand Foch, 1919

Legacy and Impact

Human Cost

World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in human history:

  • Military Deaths: Approximately 9-10 million
  • Military Wounded: About 21 million
  • Civilian Deaths: 5-6 million from direct war effects, famine, and disease
  • The Spanish Flu Pandemic: Spread partly due to war conditions, killed 50-100 million worldwide

An entire generation of young men was decimated, particularly in Europe. In Britain, France, and Germany, around 80% of men born between 1875 and 1899 were mobilized.

Political Transformation

The war redrew the map of Europe and the Middle East:

  • Four Empires Collapsed: German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian
  • New Nation-States: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and others emerged
  • Middle East Redrawn: Former Ottoman territories became British and French mandates, laying foundations for modern Middle Eastern states and conflicts
  • Russian Revolution: Led to the world's first communist state, fundamentally altering global politics for the rest of the 20th century
  • United States: Emerged as a global power, though initially returned to isolationism

Social Change

The war accelerated social transformations:

  • Women's Roles: Women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, contributing to women's suffrage movements
  • Class Structures: Traditional aristocratic authority declined
  • Labor Movements: Strengthened as workers demanded better conditions and recognition for war contributions
  • Colonial Relationships: Colonial subjects who fought for European powers began questioning colonial rule

Cultural Impact

The war's unprecedented horror and disillusionment influenced all forms of cultural expression:

  • Literature: Writers like Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, Erich Maria Remarque, and Ernest Hemingway created works reflecting the war's brutality and futility
  • Art: The Dada movement emerged as a reaction against the rationality that had led to the war; expressionism and surrealism reflected psychological trauma
  • Memorialization: War memorials, tomb of the unknown soldier, and remembrance traditions like Armistice/Remembrance Day (November 11)

Path to World War II

World War I created conditions that led directly to World War II:

  • Treaty of Versailles: Created resentment in Germany that Hitler exploited
  • Economic Issues: War debts, reparations, and economic disruption contributed to the Great Depression
  • Failure of Collective Security: The League of Nations proved ineffective at preventing aggression
  • Militarism: Despite the war's horrors, glorification of military power continued

Many historians now view the two world wars as a single "Thirty Years' War" of the 20th century (1914-1945).

"The war to end all wars" became instead the precursor to an even more devastating global conflict.

World War I Depth Study Notes | He Loves History As Well.

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